摘要
抗辐射电子学是一门交叉性、综合性的学科,其研究的辐射效应规律、损伤作用机制、加固设计方法、试验测试方法、建模仿真方法等对极端恶劣环境中的电子系统的可靠工作至关重要。对核爆炸中子、γ和X射线,空间和大气高能粒子产生的各种损伤效应(如瞬时剂量率效应、总剂量效应、单粒子效应、位移效应等)的研究现状进行了系统梳理。对辐射之间、辐射和环境应力之间的协同损伤效应(如长期原子迁移对瞬时剂量率感生光电流的影响,中子和γ射线同时辐照与序贯辐照、单因素辐照的损伤差异,质子和X射线、中子辐照的损伤差异,γ射线辐照与环境氢气的协同损伤效应等)的研究进展进行了详细介绍。阐述了国内外在核爆、空间和大气辐射加固研究方面的最新技术进展。总结了国内外在地面实验室对空间、大气或核爆辐射各种效应进行试验模拟和建模仿真的相关能力。最后对21世纪20年代以后抗辐射电子学研究领域潜在的挑战和关键技术进行了展望。
抗辐射电子学是一门交叉性、综合性的学科,内容涉及核技术、电磁场与电离辐射、微电子技术、脉冲功率技术、数值计算技术以及电子部件及其元器件的辐射效应规律、损伤机理、加固方法、模拟方法
核爆炸产生的中子、γ和X射线以及太空的电子、质子和重离子射入电子元器件,会产生各种各样的影响,这些影响称为电子元器件的辐射效
半导体器件与集成电路或微电子器件,对各种人为和自然辐射敏感,需采用适当的加固或防护措
通常在地面实验室对空间、大气或核爆辐射的各种效应进行不同保真度的试验模拟,测试相关的电、力、热响应。常用的模拟试验装置包括脉冲堆、X射线源、γ射线源、电子加速器、质子加速器、重离子加速器等。
为帮助分析电子系统或微电子器件的辐射效应,改进其抗辐射性能,计算机模拟为常用的辅助手段。相关工作包括辐射效应模型的开发、仿真分析软件平台的建设等。
本文综述了进入21世纪以来,国内外抗辐射电子学领域研究相关进展,梳理了领域存在的重大挑战,展望了领域未来的发展方向。
辐射源来自人为或自然环境。人为环境包括核爆炸、核反应堆、实验室模拟装置
总之,自然和人为场景中产生的辐射包括无静止质量的电磁波(含紫外线、X射线、γ射线等)、有静止质量不带电荷的中子、有静止质量且带电荷的离子、电子等。
大气层内核爆炸产生的辐射环境要素见

图1 核爆炸破坏环境要素
Fig.1 Factors of environmental damage caused by nuclear explosions
20世纪建立了地球周围辐射带的质子俘获模型(AP-8)和电子俘获模型(AE-8

2006年,国际电工委员会(International Electrotechnical Commission,IEC)公布了飞行器的大气辐射环

图2 大气粒子的微分通量和积分通量
Fig.2 Differential flux and integral flux of atmospheric particles
20 (c
空间辐射环境模型正向着更高分辨力和更高精细度的方向发展。
核爆炸X射线在电子学系统壳体沉积大量能量,引起壳体材料的层裂或整体破坏(热力学效应)。核爆炸X射线和γ射线进入系统电路中,产生信号的瞬变、逻辑变化甚至烧毁(瞬时剂量率效应);核爆炸中子进入系统电路中,引起电路增益下降(位移损伤效应)或逻辑变化(次级电离效应

图3 核爆炸辐射对电子系统的损伤
Fig.3 Damage to electronic system caused by nuclear explosion radiation
γ射线和X射线进入材料后,发生光电效应、康普顿效应或电子对效

图4 半导体器件的电离损伤
Fig.4 Ionization damage of semiconductor devices
质子、α离子和其他重离子携带电荷进入材料后,与其原子核或核外电子发生库伦作用,使后者发生散射,入射粒子发生反冲失去部分能

图5 入射粒子的电离过程
Fig.5 Ionization process of incident particles
中子不带电,在材料中的射程很大,与材料的作用概率很低。一旦与材料中某个原子发生相互作用,就会使其发生位移,形成初级位移原子。初级位移原子与附近的原子发生级联碰撞,产生一系列点缺陷或缺陷团簇,称为位移缺陷,形成位移损伤(

图6 材料原子的移位过程
Fig.6 Displacement process of material atoms
经过数十年的积累,辐射效应的理论分析、实践应用等均取得了大量成果。但随着半导体新材料、新工艺、新器件的涌现,特别是微电子技术在辐射场中的拓展新应用,不断促进半导体器件与电路的辐射效应新机理及其加固技术的发展。
脉冲γ或X射线在半导体器件PN结耗尽区内感生的载流子被外部电场快速扫出而形成光电流,造成电路烧毁、闭锁或逻辑翻
美国圣地亚实验室与霍尼韦尔、麻省理工学院林肯实验室等合作,21世纪10年代开发了抗辐射加固350 nm PD-SOI CMOS7工艺平台,2020年建成了180 nm PD-SOI CMOS8工艺平台,预计2025年形成抗辐射90 nm FD-SOI工艺平台,并预留从8吋线升级为12吋线的空间。当前PD-SOI工艺ASIC(Application Specific Integrated Circuit)芯片抗瞬时剂量率已达1
21世纪初,我国开发了350 nm、180 nm PD-SOI工艺,目前具备了130 nm工艺能力,并开发了抗瞬时剂量率加固的80C51系列单片机;21世纪10年代研制的金属-氧化物-半导体型场效应管(Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect-Transistor,MOSFET)、比较器等产品达到1
未来的FD-SOI工艺技术的发展趋势为:工艺节点越来越先进,顶层硅膜厚度越来越小(

图7 FD-SOI的工艺演进
Fig.7 Notional structure of an FD-SOI wafer and an FD-SOI transistor
半导体器件中,γ辐照产生的电荷可被栅氧化物、场氧化物和侧墙氧化物俘获。氧化物体内俘获电荷在距离界面附近2 nm处形成电荷层,从而改变氧化物的电场分布,引起器件阈值的漂
1991年,双极工艺器件隔离氧化物中的界面缺陷存在低剂量率辐照增强效应被发现,21世纪初国内外学者对此进行了广泛而深入的研
随着MOSFET工艺节点从亚微米到深亚微米再到纳米的提升,栅氧化层厚度从21世纪初的100 nm左右演进到10年代的10 nm左右再到20年代的1 nm量级,栅氧越来越薄,导致其中的氧化物正电荷陷阱影响也越来越

图8 FinFET的侧壁总剂量辐照漏电效应
Fig.8 Total dose irradiation leakage current on the sidewall of FinFET
介质隔离技术在MOSFET沟道下方引入了埋氧层,该埋氧层也会带来类似栅氧的效应。介质隔离结构从21世纪初的双厚结构逐渐演化为21世纪10年代的双薄结构,改善了背栅氧化物的影响。2020年前后出现了双埋氧结构,通过调节埋氧层电位,可进一步减小辐射感生电离缺陷的影响(

图9 双埋氧介质隔离技术
Fig.9 Double buried oxide isolation technique
2008年研究发现150 nm FD-SOI抗总剂量在6 000 Gy(Si)左右。2018年报道的65 nm N型金属-氧化物-半导体型场效应管(NMOSFET)抗总剂量达到10 000 Gy(Si)。MOS工艺节点进入10 nm量级后,出现了3D结构器件—鳍栅场效应管(Fin Field-Effect Transistor,FinFET),泄露电流有一定反弹(

图10 总剂量效应与工艺节点的变化关系
Fig.10 Relationship between total dose effect and process node
2018年有学者研究了新型光可重新配置门阵列(Optical Reconfigurable Gate Array,ORGA),利用激光二极管阵列和全息照相存储器技术对可编程逻辑单元进行50 ns快速定时刷新,实现了数MGy(Si)加固,如

图11 新型光可重新配置门阵列总剂量效应
Fig.11 Total dose effect of novel optical reconfigurable gate array
我国抗总剂量工艺加固技术的主要代表有中国电子科技集团、航天科技集团九院等。中国电子科技集团在21世纪初开发了亚微米CMOS/SOI工艺技术,10年代实现了150 nm CMOS/SOI工艺技术,达到3 000 Gy(Si)。航天科技集团九院在21世纪初建成了350~500 nm CMOS/SOI抗辐射芯片设计平台,10年代开发了180 nm、130 nm、65 nm的抗辐射芯片设计平台,满足3 000 Gy(Si)要求。
CMOS工艺集成电路中,静态随机存取存储器(Static Random-Access Memory,SRAM)在离子环境中容易发生单粒子效应,可通过三模冗余结构和定时刷新进行单粒子翻转加固;通过空间结构交织进行单粒子多位翻转加固;通过介质隔离消除单粒子闭锁,降低单粒子翻转的敏感性。
集成电路从微米尺度进入亚微米、深亚微米尺度,由于每比特的敏感区变小,入射离子的翻转截面有所下降;但从深亚微米到超深亚微米,临界电荷逐渐下降,翻转截面有所反弹。2010年前后,通过纳米尺度集成电路的单粒子效应研究发现,工艺节点越先进,体硅平面器件和FinFET器件的单粒子错误愈严重,FD-SOI器件随工艺的变化不太明显(

图12 不同工艺节点的临界电荷和翻转截面
Fig.12 Critical charge and upset cross section of different process nodes
进入21世纪,国内外广泛研究了深亚微米CMOS集成电路的中子次级电离的翻转和功能中断效

图13 不同工艺节点不同能量中子的翻转截面
Fig.13 Upset cross sections of neutrons with different energies at different process nodes
2019年研究发现,16 nm FinFET工艺SoC Cortex-A53 APU对大气中子敏感,大约每1

图14 不同工艺节点的大气中子翻转截面
Fig.14 Upset cross sections of atmospheric neutrons at different process nodes
中子、质子可使半导体器件出现位移缺陷,载流子寿命降低,电阻率增加或迁移率增加
1
光电器件由于其脆弱性,在各种应用场合已成为抗位移损伤加固研究的重点。21世纪初,美国圣地亚实验室研究人员对GaAs光电二极管和垂直腔面发射激光器进行了中子辐照测试,光电二极管加固后抗中子能力可达1

图15 LED和光耦的质子辐照特性
Fig.15 Proton irradiation characteristics of LEDs and optical couplers
2017年研究发现,国产光耦器件GH302抗质子注量水平仅1

图16 GH302质子辐照损伤
Fig.16 Proton irradiation damage of GH302
我国抗质子、中子位移损伤加固主要单位有中国电子科技集团、航天科技集团九院等。21世纪初,中国电子科技集团掌握了系列抗辐射双极工艺技术,建成了4吋线双极工艺平台;21世纪10年代末建成6吋线双极工艺平台,形成覆盖产品范围广、性能先进的特色系列化双极工艺平台。
辐射与物质相互作用,其作用过程会受到第三方因素调制的影响,或者说辐射与某因素共同影响了物质的响应过程,称为协同效应。常见的协同效应包括中子和γ的协同、氢气与γ的协同、原子迁移与瞬时剂量率的协同
圣地亚实验室在20世纪末系统研究了元器件贮存20年前后的瞬时剂量率效应,从2006年开始进行30年的辐照老化效应研

图17 元器件老化前后的瞬时剂量率感生光电流和原子扩散
Fig.17 Transient dose rate induced photocurrent of 54LS90,54LS14,54LS193 and atomic diffusion before and after component aging
2020年前后,中国工程物理研究院研究了短期老化器件的瞬时剂量率效应。研究显示,典型肖特基二极管、双极晶体管、双极工艺外围接口电路在自然存放2年前后,脉冲γ辐照产生的光电流响应尚无明显变化(

图18 短期老化前后典型元器件的瞬时剂量率感生光电流对比
Fig.18 Comparison of transient dose rate induced photocurrent of typical components before and after short-term aging
中子辐射在半导体内产生位移缺陷,γ辐射在氧化物及其界面产生电离缺陷,2种辐射同时或先后作用于器件,产生的综合效应与单因素辐照相比有一定差
中子辐照一般有小注量(1
20世纪有学者研究高注量中子与高剂量γ射线辐照GaAs MOSFET的协同效应,发现单中子辐照损伤略大于γ、中子序贯辐照损伤,且远大于单γ辐照损伤,说明样品对中子辐照非常敏感,对γ辐照不怎么敏感;中子、γ序贯辐照损伤大于γ、中子序贯辐照损伤,说明损伤有顺序依赖,中子引入的位移缺陷在γ辐照条件下能被激活成电离缺陷。2004年,美国波音公司对双极工艺集成电路和光耦开展了类似研究,指出序贯辐照的损伤大于单中子、单γ辐照损伤,未发现不同辐照顺序有显著或规律性的损伤差异。2021年,圣地亚实验室报道了NPN双极晶体管的序贯辐照和同时辐照损伤差异,发现序贯辐照损伤小于同时辐照损伤(

图19 中子与γ辐照的序贯辐照与同时辐照效应
Fig.19 Sequential irradiation and simultaneous irradiation effects of neutron and γ irradiation
21世纪10年代,我国也开展了中子、γ射线组合辐照损伤研究。西北核技术研究院等的研究表明,对于含双极工艺的电源样品,中子与γ同时辐照损伤比单中子或单γ辐照损伤退化量之和要大,也比γ、中子序贯辐照损伤略大一些(

图20 同时辐照、序贯辐照与分别辐照的异同
Fig.20 Similarities and differences between simultaneous irradiation, sequential irradiation and separate irradiation

图21 同时辐照与分别辐照的异同
Fig.21 Similarities and differences between simultaneous irradiation and separate irradiation
中国工程物理研究院利用CFBR-II堆和钴源开展了典型双极晶体管(Bipolar Junction Transistor,BJT)和MOSFET的试验研究,发现只要辐照顺序和退火时间控制得当,在试验不确定度范围内,不同辐照顺序的损伤无显著性差异。如

图22 BJT中子与γ射线的协同辐照效应
Fig.22 Synergistic irradiation effect of neutrons and γ rays on BJTs

图23 中子与γ射线对MOSFET的协同辐照效应
Fig.23 Synergistic irradiation effects of neutrons and γ ray on MOSFETs
带电粒子本身可产生严重的电离损伤和一般性位移损伤,特别是高能质子。2001年至2006年,范登堡大学研究人员研究了200 MeV质子与X射线对LM124运算放大器的辐照损伤,发现质子辐照损伤大于相同电离能损的γ射线的辐照损伤,小于相同非电离能损的中子的辐照损伤,即质子的电离和非电离损伤之间有一定的相互抵消。仿真分析表明,主要诱因(

图24 质子与X射线辐照的协同效应
Fig.24 Synergistic effect of proton and X-ray irradiation
γ射线与MOS器件的栅氧化物(1~100 nm)或双极器件的隔离氧化物(100~1 000 nm)作用,产生电子-空穴对,逃脱复合的空穴在氧化物内电场作用下向氧化物与半导体界面扩散或迁移的过程中,与缺陷前驱物作用生成氧化物固定正电荷,或在氢参与下与缺陷前驱物作用释放氢离子,氢离子跳跃式输运到氧化物与半导体界面,与那里的悬挂键作用生成界面陷阱电荷。隔离氧化物中,空穴输运时间为1
2000年前后,研究人员对双极工艺器件和线性集成电路的低剂量率辐照损伤增强效应(Enhanced Low Dose Rate Sensitivity,ELDRS)有了系统性认

图25 双极隔离氧化物中的氢气裂解、浓度影响规律和试验数据
Fig.25 Hydrogen cracking, dose rate influence law and comparison of experimental and calculated results in bipolar isolated oxide
20世纪已研究了MOS器件中的γ辐照损伤的剂量率依赖效应。21世纪10年代初,对γ射线辐照MOS器件产生界面陷阱电荷的过程进行了系统的仿真分

图26 浅槽隔离工艺及其ELDRS、氢气调制规律
Fig.26 Shallow trench isolation process and its dose rate dependence, hydrogen modulation law
为模拟核爆炸、空间、大气等辐射对电子器件、设备、系统等目标产生的各种效应,国内外在实验室建立了诸多模拟试验装
美国形成了系列辐射模拟设备。圣地亚实验室的SPR-III快中子模拟装置已于21世纪初退役,相关试验研究被数字模拟(Charon工艺仿真分析软件、Xyce电路仿真分析软件)所替代;21世纪10年代以来,主要应用环形反应堆(Annular Core Research Reactor,ACRR)装置开展中子与γ射线混合模拟试验,研究多因素辐照与单因素辐照的差异。圣地亚实验室在21世纪初建成了大面积、高功率HERMES-III强脉冲γ射线模拟装置,能够开展
1
我国建成的系列核爆辐射模拟装置主要在西北核技术研究院、中国工程物理研究院等单位,可以开展与HERMES、Saturn、SPR-III、ACRR等装置相似的试验模拟工作。中国工程物理研究院的CFBR-II堆为快中子脉冲堆,中子/γ比达1×1
西北核技术研究院在21世纪初建成了强光一号核爆脉冲γ射线模拟试验装置,辐照面积和峰值剂量率达到100 c
中国原子能科学研究院、中国科学院于21世纪初建成的重离子加速器可以开展各种单粒子效应试验。2014年,中国原子能科学研究院建成100 MeV质子回旋加速器(CY CIAE-100);2020年前后,西北核技术研究院、哈尔滨工业大学等相关单位陆续建成了200 MeV、300 MeV等不同能量的质子同步加速器,与已有的高能重离子模拟装置构成互为补充的模拟试验平台系列。
为更好地理解辐射与物质或器件的作用过程,21世纪以来国内外研究提出了许多辐射效应模型,开发了仿真分析平
21世纪初,美国推出了ASC先进仿真计算计

图27 圣地亚实验室的辐射效应仿真软件
Fig.27 Radiation effect simulation software in Sandia
进入21世纪,我国在商业常态电路仿真工具基础之上进行的辐射效应建模仿真研究蓬勃发展。北京华大九天软件有限公司2004年推出Empyrean集成电路常态电性能仿真分析工具,2018年形成3条EDA产品线,包括模拟/全定制IC设计、SoC设计优化、平板全流程设计工作。2010年前后,苏州珂晶达电子有限公司开发了半导体器件仿真分析工具软件Genius-TCAD,能够模拟总剂量、单粒子等辐射效应。21世纪20年代,航天科技集团九院、哈尔滨工业大学、西北核技术研究院等相继拓展其空间辐射效应建模仿真能力。
由空间、大气与核爆炸辐射引发的电子系统或微电子器件的辐射效应研究随着微电子和电子技术的发展而方兴未艾。传统硅基半导体器件和集成电路的辐射效应研究非常深入,但也有不少挑战,如高性能MCU、SRAM等芯片的瞬时剂量率加固和次级电离加固工艺与设计技术、光电器件的位移加固设计技术、辐射效应的材料-晶体管-电路-系统的跨尺度、多物理建模等。基于硅、超越硅、异于硅的新材料、新工艺、新器件的不断涌现也需要开展针对性的辐射损伤机理和理论研究。新型高密度集成微系统、纳米小尺度器件的损伤新机制需要研究,同时需要开发研制高保真、可配置的辐射效应模拟试验装置。
期待以空间、大气与核爆炸辐射场景为牵引,以试验测试和建模仿真为抓手,从底层材料到顶层系统,优化完善抗辐射电子学体系化研究平台,开发高确信抗辐射加固产品,实现抗辐射电子学在新时代的跨越式发展。
未来一段时间,抗辐射电子学研究领域的关键着力点或核心创新点包括但不限于:
1) 抗辐射新材料、新工艺、新器件研究;
2) 瞬时剂量率加固高性能数字信号处理芯片研究;
3) 中子次级电离加固高性能数字信号处理芯片研究;
4) 中子、质子位移加固新型光电器件研究;
5) 抗辐射加固PDK与IP库开发;
6) 微电子器件辐射效应的多物理协同仿真模型开发;
7) 电子系统辐射效应的数模协同仿真软件平台开发;
8) 组合式高性能辐射模拟试验装置及其数字孪生体开发。
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